Wednesday, July 31, 2013

Dick Gagel asks “isn’t the XII [Dynasty of Egypt] too early?” for Moses.

 
 
Dear Damien,

I must have had your paper on Moses ages ago, made my notes in the margin but never shared my understanding of the man’s early life with you.
Used the following to gainsay those who called him and the Exodus “a myth”.
It would appear we differ on both dynasties and chronology – isn’t the XII too early?
MOSES was a general, as fully described by Josephus in Antiquities, Book II, ch X.
In ch XI, after he had virtually saved Egypt as its victorious general over the Ethiopians/Cushites, he had to flee for his life from an assassination plot. He was heir to a throne in Egypt as the ruler had a daughter but no grandchildren. Josephus: “if Moses had been slain, there was no one, either a kin or adopted, that had any oracle on his side for pretending to the crown of Egypt.” Here are our clues – a dynasty in which Moses is General, and one which effectively ended at the point in history that Moses fled and did not regain authority in the land. There is such a dynasty which also exercised jurisdiction in the Northeastern Delta where Israel dwelt and Moses was found – Dynasty XIII.
The total length of this dynasty according to Africanus’ and Eusebius’ epitomes from Manetho was 453 years under 60 rulers. But the version of Barbarus provides a missing detail from Manetho. It reveals that for a time the court was not only at Thebes, but at Bubastis in the Delta for the first 153 years (Alfred Schoene’s edition of Eusebius, p. 214).
In the Turin Canon catalogue of kings of the thirteenth dynasty, listed number 17, is “The General” with the throne name of Semenkhkare (Gardiner’s Egypt of the Pharaohs, p. 440; and Weigall’s History of the Pharaohs, pp 136, 151-152). The Egyptian word for “the General” was Mermeshoi – not in all dynastic history does this title appear again as the personal name of a ruler of Egypt.
When Moses was made General or Commander of the Troops, he automatically inherited royal authority, as only kings could have the supreme command of the army, explaining his appearance in the list. Before the rise to power of this famous General, the thirteenth dynasty was of Asiatic blood. Its kings at time bore the epithet “the Asiatic” – hence no basic prejudice in adopting the Hebrew child Moses into the family. (See volume II, ch II of the revised Cambridge Ancient History, ed.1962.)
The sixteenth king listed in the Turin Canon – just before “the General” – is Userkare Khendjer – the latter being an un-Egyptian personal name. He ruled over the Delta as well as Upper Egypt. A pyramid of his has been found at South Saqqara. No descendant of his is known to have succeeded to the throne. Though nothing more is known of this man’s family, every evidence points to him as the Pharaoh whose daughter is mentioned in the book of Exodus. Within a few years the influence of this dynasty in the eastern Delta ceased.
The kings of this obscure period often have their names associated with king Neferkare (Turin Canon) on royal seals who is Phiops of Manetho, and commonly known as Pepi the Great. Here is the final proof that these minor rulers of Dynasty XIII were contemporaneous with the last great Pharaoh of the sixth dynasty of Memphis – the pharaoh of the Oppression. More than one name on a scarab has puzzled many historians, who view Egypt as generally ruled by one king at a time, but literally hundreds of such seals have been found. They are generally treated with discreet silence, for the implication of these seals would revolutionise the history of Egypt. (See The Sceptre of Egypt, by William C Hayes,, Vol.I, p.342)
Moses is finally able to return to Egypt “and it came to pass in the course of those many days that the king of Egypt died” (Ex. 2:23) confirms that it was a long wait as Pepi the Great ruled for 94 years and died at age 100, succeeded by his son Menthesuphis (Manetho) or Merenre II-Antyemzaef (Turin Canon) – the Pharaoh of the Exodus who ruled only one year 1487-1486, perishing in the Red Sea.
His widow Nitocris (Manetho) or Nitokerty (Turin Canon) ruled 12 years, followed by their son Neferka “the younger” – his first born elder brother and heir presumptive having died at the time of the Exodus.
Manetho ends his list here as the invading Hyksos having by then taken full control of the country with their Dynasty XV and ruled Egypt for the next 400 years.
I feel we are on safe ground to designate Pepi the Great as the oppressive pharaoh. Userkare Kendjer with an ethnic affinity with the Hebrews does not strictly apply the rules emanating from Memphis by elevating Moses who must later have gained huge popularity following his military success. Those factors may well have raised serious concerns at Memphis HO, prompting Pepi the Great to seek Moses’ death by giving those assassination orders to the Bubastis court, and also maintaining his fatwa against Moses till the end of his life and reign.
 
Best regards

….


Damien Mackey replies:
 
Dear Dick

I just remembered that I, a few months ago, wrote a proposed synthesis of the biblical era, from Abraham to the Exodus, with the corresponding Egyptian history (and archaeology). See my:

Connecting the Biblical Patriarchs to Ancient Egypt
 

The article still has to be finished, but it already contains the basis of what my view is. Fundamental to my reconstruction are the following (after that I am tentative):

-The archaeological period from Abram at the time of the four Mesopotamian kings, to the Exodus, is bookended by Abram in Late Chalcolithic and Ghassul IV (Transjordan) and the Exodus Israelites as the Middle Bronze I (MBI) people.
-According to this archaeological evidence, Abram was contemporaneous with pharaoh Narmer, who may even have been the Pharaoh of Abram and Sarai. This latter, the biblical Abimelech pharaoh of Abraham and Isaac, was clearly a very long-reigning ruler, which would suit pharaoh Aha, the first dynastic king (who may have been Narmer, and Menes).
-Joseph is surely Imhotep, and Ptah-hotep.
-I fully accept the expert testimony of Dr R. Cohen (Israelites as MBI) and Professor Emmanuel Anati (Har Karkom is Mount Sinai).
-Anati notes (and I accept this) that the story of the Egyptian Sinuhe shares ‘a common matrix’ with that of Moses fleeing Egypt for Midian. (Obviously there are some vast differences as well between these two tales). That nails Moses to Late Amenemes I and early Sesostris I. Revisionists have found some striking 12th dynasty correlations with the Exodus account (e.g. those bricks mixed with straw).
-The MBI people do just what the Israelites did in their trek through the Paran desert, Transjordania and into Palestine, where Early Bronze Jericho falls.
 
The 13thdynasty may possibly be partly contemporaneous with the life of Moses.
But be careful. The name, “Moses”, did not mean “General”. It was given to Moses with the meaning of being “drawn from the water” (Exodus 2:10): “She named him Moses, saying, “I drew him out of the water”.” So that might shake your correspondence between Mermoshis and Userkare K.
(Perhaps Joseph, not Moses, was more likely to have left a dynasty of Asiatics).
You will see that I, too, have the 6th dynasty contemporaneous with the era of Moses, though I have not yet been able fully to integrate it all. Given my synthesis of dynasties (following Courville’s clue but not his model), then some 13th dynasty princes (or whatever they were) may well have been contemporaneous with the 6th dynasty’s Neferkare (Pepi the Great).
But Pepi the Great was not a founder, a “new king” (exodus 1:8), so you perhaps need to allow for two major pharaohs before the Pharaoh of the Oppression: namely, the founder Pharaoh and then, as according to the Artapanus tradition, the “Chenephres”(Neferkare?) who married Moses’ Egyptian ‘mother’, “Merris” (Meresankh, or Meres-ankh).
Artapanus’s“Chenephres” (Neferkare) and “Merris” pattern is fulfilled both with Chephren and Ankhesenmerire (i.e. Meresankh), in the 4th dynasty, and perhaps with Huni (Neferkare) and Meresankh, as explained in the above article, in relation to Sneferu (as Moses).
Merenre, followed by Nitocris, then the Hyksos, is a pattern that I, too, have previously proposed for the finale – but without properly having been able to blend the entire 6th dynasty with the biblical picture.
 
I hope that this is helpful
Damien.

Tuesday, July 30, 2013

Books in the Footprints of God series



Footprints of God: Peter Keeper of the Keys 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

The first film in a projected 10-video series, The Footprints of God: The Story of Salvation from Abraham to Augustine, join host Stephen Ray, best-selling author and dynamic speaker, on an amazing journey of adventure about Peter, the rugged fisherman Jesus chose to lead His Church. Filmed completely on location in Rome and the Holy Land, you will follow Peter from Galilee to Rome to discover answers about the major role of the Papacy in the saga of salvation.
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  • Footprints of God: Mary the Mother of God 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

    This second film in the the Footprints of God series follows Mary on her extraordinary journey on location in Turkey, Israel and Greece with popular Catholic author and speaker Stephen Ray as guide. Down-to-earth teaching on subjects like Mary’s Immaculate Conception, Assumption into Heaven, and her role of intercessor, and more are offered in an energized, high-impact style that combines the best elements of a travel documentary, biography, Bible study, apologetics course, and church history review.
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  • Footprints of God: Paul Contending for the Faith 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

    Zealous for the God of Israel, Saul of Tarsus pursued murderous threats against the disciples of Jesus. But Saul’s zeal was turned upside down when he was knocked from his “high horse” and humbled by the hand of God. Join the adventure in this edition of the Footprints of God series as Stephen Ray, best-selling author and popular Bible teacher, takes you on the road with St. Paul through Israel, Syria, Turkey, Greece and Italy. Fall from a horse in the desert and dangle over the Damascus Wall in a basket.
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  • Footprints of God: Apostolic Fathers 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

    In this Footprints of God film, Apostolic Fathers Handing on the Faith, Steve Ray takes you on an exciting journey to the Roman Empire and the world of the first Christians. You’ll sit at the feet of the apostles, celebrate the Eucharist in hiding, and tremble at the suffering they endured for Jesus Christ. Retrace their steps through Israel, Turkey, France and Italy. All this in a fast-paced, entertaining biography, travel documentary, Bible study, apologetics course and Church history study rolled into one remarkable adventure!
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  • Footprints of God: Moses Sign Sacrament Salvation 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

    Born a slave, raised a prince, and humbled in exile, Moses returned to confront the mighty Pharaoh with only a staff and the promise of God. Join Steve Ray, best-selling author and popular Bible teacher, in this edition of the Footprints of God series as he takes you on an incredible journey of discovery through Egypt, Jordan, and Israel. Together you'll discover how Moses, the Exodus, and the Hebrew experience in the wilderness point to the coming of Christ and our salvation. Gain a deeper appreciation for our Savior, and for the Church and her Sacraments.
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  • Footprints of God: David and Solomon Expanding the Kingdom 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

    Why is Jesus called the Son of David and why is that important to understanding Our Lord? How did the Kingdom of Israel prefigure and anticipate the Kingdom of God and the Catholic Church? Join Steve Ray in this edition from the Footprints of God series as he takes you on a fast-paced adventure through the mountains and deserts of Israel to discover not only where David and Solomon lived and reigned, but also the meaning of their lives and kingdoms.
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  • Footprints of God: Jesus The Word Became Flesh 1-DVD + Study Guide (Footprints of God)

    In this edition in the Footprints of God series, join Stephen Ray as he catches fish in the Sea of Galilee, camps along the Jordan, and explores the places Jesus lived and performed his miracles. Follow the incredible journey through the streets of Jerusalem to Calvary and the tomb, to the Resurrection and Pentecost. Gain a deeper appreciation for our Savior and the salvation he purchased for the world. All this in a fast-paced, entertaining biography, travel documentary, Bible study, apologetics course and Church history study rolled into one remarkable adventure!
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  • Footprints of God: Over Holy Ground- Exploring Sacred Sites 1-DVD (Footprints of God)

    Puts you in the skies above the Holy Land and beyond, giving you a bird’s-eye view of such significant sites as the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the pyramids of Egypt, St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome and many, many more. All complemented by relevant passages of scripture, and backed by a moving musical score. Over Holy Ground takes inspirational filmmaking to new heights! Duration: 30 Mins
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  • Tuesday, July 23, 2013

    Parallels in the lives of Jacob and Joseph.

    
    There are many similarities between Jacob the son of Isaac and Rebekah and Joseph the son of Jacob and Rachel. (Everything in Italics is from Louis Ginzberg's - Legends of the Jews - Volume 2. - I don't recommend it)
    1.As the mother of Jacob remained childless for a long time after her marriage, so also the mother of Joseph.

    a.Rebekah and Isaac had to wait twenty years before having their twin boys Jacob and Esau

    b.In the first place Rachel had to wait 14 years to even marry Jacob because Uncle Laban had tricked Jacob into marrying Leah. Then Everyone was having children but Rachel who eventually died giving birth to Benjamin.

    2.As Jacob's mother bore two sons, so also Joseph's mother.

    a.Rebekah bore two sons, Jacob and Esau.

    b.Rachel bore two sons, Joseph and Benjamin.

    3.Like the father, the son appropriated his older brother's birthright.

    a.Jacob received the birthright from Esau because Esau sold it to him for a bowl of soup.

    b.Joseph received the birthright for a few reasons.

    i.The first is the Reuben the firstborn son, tried to take over the family in an incestuous way and fell out of his fathers favor.

    ii.The second was that Rachel was Jacobs favorite wife and therefore her children were his favorite children, Joseph being the eldest.

    4.The father was hated by his brother, and the son was hated by his brethren.

    a.Jacob was hated by his brother Esau because not only had Esau lost the birthright for a bowl of soup, but he lost the blessing from his father Isaac because Jacob tricked Isaac into giving it to him.

    b.Joseph was hated by his brothers because he was clearly the favorite of his father and he kept having these dreams that his brothers would one day bow down to him, and he told his brothers the dreams.

    5.The father was the favorite son as compared with his brother, so was the son as compared with his brethren.

    a.Isaac actually favored Esau for a while because he was a hunter cooked food just like Isaac wanted. After he lost the blessing and birthright though, he married some pagan women just to spite his parents.

    b.Joseph was the favorite because he was from the favorite wife, as stated earlier.

    6.Both the father and the son lived in the land of the stranger.

    a.Jacob lived in Haran

    b.Joseph lived in Egypt

    7.The father became a servant to a master, also the son.

    a.Jacob was a servant to Uncle Laban for at least 14 years trying to get permission to marry Rachel.

    b.Joseph was a servant in Egypt.

    8.The master whom the father served was blessed by God, so was the master whom the son served.

    a.While Jacob was in the service of Laban, God blessed the house of Laban.

    b.While Joseph served Potiphar and Pharaoh in Egypt, both were blessed by his presence.

    9.The father and the son were both blessed with wealth.

    10.Great things were announced to the father in a dream, so also to the son.

    11.As the father went to Egypt and put an end to famine, so the son.

    12.As the father exacted the promise from his sons to bury him in the Holy Land, so also the son.

    13.The father died in Egypt, there died also the son.

    14.As the father's remains were carried to the Holy Land for interment, so also the remains of the son.

    The significance of these parallels.

    As we have seen in other bible tidbits Joseph is a type of Christ figure. And as such I think that it is saying he is so like his father that they do the same things, just like Joseph and Jacob do the same things.

    But if we can step back even further we see parallels between Abraham and Isaac. Both bear two children, one blessed, one not so blessed. They both have a hard time conceiving and there are more.

    I think in a spiritual interpretation Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph all tell the story of salvation.

    Abraham is a type for God the Father who offers his son Isaac as a sacrifice.

    Isaac as a type of Christ gives birth to Jacob who is a types of the church with the twelve sons.

    The sons of Israel (meaning the church) are sent to the nations to feed them, spiritually and physically.
    bill bannonsaid...
    Joseph like Christ is handed over to the Gentiles by his brothers where Joseph is falsely accused and descends into prison from which he rises to the right hand of pharoah just as Christ descends into hades and rises to the right hand of the Father. From the right hand of pharoah, Joseph feeds a starving world with grain from the grainaries whereas from the right hand of the Father, Christ feeds a world starving to be good ...with the Eucharist which is Himself from the grainaries which are the dioceses. Joseph wore a multi colored cloak but Christ wore a seamless garment. Joseph's brothers stand for the Jews whom Joseph/ Christ loves but as they speak to Him...Joseph disguises his identity for now but in the end will talk to them undisguised as Christ.

    Wednesday, July 17, 2013

    Song of Songs: Hebrew "Shir Hashirim"

    

    St Teresa of Jesus and the Song of Songs --
    The Friendship the Bride Desires


    by Fr. Dominic Borg, OCD


    The Hebrew title for the Book which we quite often refer to by the title: Song of Songs, is: Shir Hashirim. Many are those biblical scholars who in these two Hebrew words, are able to see and attest to the greatness of this book.

    Rabbi Akiba declared: "Heaven forbid that any person in Israel ever disputed that the Song of Songs is holy. For the whole world is not worthy of the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel, for all the Writings are holy but the Song of Songs is the Holy of Holies" (Mishnah Yadayim 3.5).

    Many are those biblical scholars who, in their interpretation of the Song of Songs, are not reluctant to adhere to the famous expression used by Hudson Taylor, where he said: "The book of the Song of Songs is a Book of union and communion with Christ. Having said this, I venture to add in saying that the Song of Songs, in its superlative meaning: the Song of Songs, that is, the best of Songs, is a poem of the history of love in an excellent relationship. Yes, it is a romance of the highest standard. In this short reflection, entitled: The friendship the Bride desires: St. Teresa of Jesus and the Song of Songs, I ask you to never lose sight of the fact that the entire Bible is a romance, a love story, of God "falling in love" with man.

    To live the Carmelite way is to be plunged into the mystery of Mary, Our Mother. Mary's reaction in front of the Word of God, which manifests itself in our daily events, ought to be the reaction of every Christian, and in a very particular way, of every Carmelite: "Mary treasured all these words and pondered them in her heart." (Luke 2.10). St. Teresa of Jesus has captured very well the meaning of these words. In the Book of the Foundations and in the Book of the Interior Castle, St. Teresa makes it clear that the secret of our communion with God does not lie in thinking much, but in loving much. (F 5.2; Interior:1.7). It does not take much time and energy from the reader of St. Teresa to discover her profound love for the Scriptures. In her writings she quotes the Holy Scriptures more than six hundred times. This alone speaks volumes, especially when we take into consideration the fact that most probably St. Teresa was never in possession of a complete Bible, and for sure she was never in possession of a Bible in the vernacular. In the Book of her Life, she expressed clearly her love for Holy Scripture: "I would die a thousand deaths for the faith or for any truth of Sacred Scripture." (Life 33.5). In the same Book she wrote that it was revealed to her in prayer that "all the harm that comes to the world comes from its not knowing the truths of Scripture in clarity and truth" (Life 40.1)

    In the Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation entitled "Dei Verbum", in paragraph 2, we encounter this powerful statement: "the invisible God (cf Col 1.15; 1 Tim 1.17), from the fullness of his love, addresses men as his friends (cf Ex 33.11; Jn 15.14-15), and moves among them (Bar 3.38), in order to invite and receive them into his company." Again, in the same document of Vatican II (18 November 1965) paragraph 23 we read: "The spouse of the incarnate Word, which is the Church, is taught by the Holy Spirit. She strives to reach day by day a more profound understanding of Sacred Scriptures in order to provide her children with food from the divine words."

    St. Teresa, in her Meditations on the Song of Songs, exactly in paragraph 2 of Chapter 1 tells us: "One word of His will contain within itself a thousand mysteries, and thus our understanding is only very elementary." The reaction of St. Teresa in front the Word of God is clearly stated in paragraph 8 of Chapter 1 of her Meditations: "these words must contain great things and mysteries since they are of such value that when I asked learned men to explain what the Holy Spirit meant by them and what the true meaning was, they answered that the doctors wrote many commentaries and yet never finished explaining the words fully." These words of St. Teresa remind me of the disciple who asked his Rabbi why each volume of the Talmud starts with page 2. All other books start with page 1. The answer of the Rabbi was: My son, each volume of the Talmud starts with page 2 so that each volume will remind you that even if you were to know the whole Talmud by heart, yet you do not know the interpretation of page one of the Bible. It is no wonder, brothers and sisters, that when we come to the interpretation of the Song of Songs we have to be on guard. St. Teresa has this serious exhortation in her book of Meditations: "It will seem to you that there are some words in the Song of Songs that could have been said in another style. In light of our dullness such an opinion doesn't surprise me. I have heard some persons say that they avoid listening to them. Oh, God help me, how great is our misery! Just as poisonous creatures turn everything they eat into poison, so do we ..." "O my Lord, how poorly we profit from the blessing you grant us! You seek ways and means and you devise plans to show your love for us; we inexperienced in loving you, esteem this love so poorly that our minds, little exercised in love go where they always go and cease to think of the great mysteries this language, spoken by the Holy Spirit, contains within itself. What more was necessary than this language in order to enkindle us in His love and make us realize that not without good reason did He choose this style." (Meditations 1.3-4). These words of the Saint remind me of what St. Jerome, a great Biblical Scholar, had to say when he was asked in which order ought we to read the Bible. His response was that we should start with the Book of Psalms and end with the Book of the Song of Songs, because, he said, only after we have trained ourselves in the language of love, will we be in a position to have a glimpse of the great love of God expressed in the Song of Songs! It is by no means a surprise to read what Vatican II has to say when in chapter 6 of the Dei Verbum it says: "In the Sacred books the Father who is in heaven comes lovingly to meet his children, and talks with them. And such is the force and power of the Word of God that it can serve the Church as strength for their faith, food for the soul, and a pure and lasting fount of spiritual life." (D.V. 6.21).

    Christian mystics like St. Bernard of Clairvoux in the twelfth century, or St. Teresa of Jesus and the great poet and saint, St. John of the Cross in the sixteenth century, contemplating the love of God and the soul, found in the Song of Songs a source and an inspiration for their ecstatic spirituality. St. Bernard, who wrote eighty-six sermons on the first two chapters of the Song, set the tone: "O strong and burning love, O love urgent and impetuous, which does not allow me to think of anything but you ... You laugh at all considerations of fitness, reason, modesty and prudence, and tread them underfoot." (Sermon 79).

    For twenty centuries, the Song of Songs was almost universally read as a religious or historical allegory. The allegorical interpretation found its first great champion in Rabbi Akiba, who taught that the Song of Songs was about the love of God and the people of Israel, an interpretation elaborated in various ways by Jewish commentators such as Rashi (d. 1105) and Iben Ezra (d. 1168). The Fathers of the Church, following Origen (d. 254), applied this reading to the relations between Christ and his Bride the Church, or as St. Teresa of Jesus indicates, Christ and the soul of the believer. An interesting observation is how St. Teresa, in Chapter 14, paragraph 9 of the Book of her life writes: "It was a great delight for me to consider my soul as a garden, and reflect that the Lord was taking His walk in it. I begged Him to increase the fragrance of the little flowers of virtue that were beginning to bloom, so it seemed, and that they might give Him glory and He might sustain them." (Life 14.9) There is no doubt that the symbolic language of the Song of Songs defies all imagination: we all stand there stupefied in front of words that baffle us with their pregnant meaning. As we stand there in awe, St. Teresa's advice in paragraph one of Chapter 1 of the Meditations is worth a ton of gold. She says: "Thus I highly recommend that when you read some book or hear a sermon or think about the mysteries of our sacred faith you avoid tiring yourselves or wasting your thoughts in subtle reasoning about what you cannot properly understand. Many things are not meant for women to understand, nor even for men." (M. 1.1)

    One of the Fathers of the Church tells us that when we read the Scriptures and do not understand everything that the text in front of us is telling us, we ought not to be discouraged: what we understand is our possession, what we do not understand is our inheritance; with perseverance, our inheritance will become also our possession. I repeat, what we understand is our possession, what we do not understand is our inheritance; with perseverance, our inheritance will become also our possession.

    To continue on the same line of thought, the Saint in her Meditations in paragraph 7 of Chapter one tells us: "I conclude this matter by saying that you should never dwell on what you do not understand in Sacred Scripture or the mysteries of our faith more than I have said, nor should you be startled by the lofty words that take place between God and the Soul." (M1.7). An example of this are the words that come from the mouth of the Lover towards his bride:

    You are altogether beautiful,
    my love;
    there is no flaw in you.
    Come with me from Lebanon,
    my bride;
    come with me from Lebanon.
    Depart from the peak of Amana,
    from the peak of Senir and Hermon
    from the dens of lions,
    from the mountains of leopards.
    You have ravished my heart, my
    sister, my bride,
    you have ravished my heart
    with a glance of your eyes,
    with one jewel of your necklace,
    How sweet is your love, my sister, my bride!
    How much better is your love
    than wine

    To look at the one who is addressing his bride in these lofty words is to take St. Teresa's advice which we encounter in the Way of Perfection chapter 26: "behold Him on the way to the garden ... Or behold Him bound to the column ... or behold Him burdened with the cross ... He will look at you with those eyes so beautiful and compassionate ... merely because you turn your head to look at Him" (WP 26.5). These words that come forth from the pen of St. Teresa, remind us of what the Saint has to say in the Meditations where she comes forward with an amazing interpretation on the meaning of the symbol of the "apple tree".

    In the Song of Songs, chapter 8, verse 5 we read:

    "Who is she that comes from the desert,
    leaning upon her beloved?
    Under the apple tree I roused you;
    It was there that your mother conceived you,
    There she who bore you conceived you."

    In the Jewish tradition this verse refers to the experience that the Jewish mothers went through in the time when they were in Egypt. Because Pharaoh had ordered that all male babies were to be killed as soon as they were born, the Jewish mothers, when they came to deliver their babies, would go into hiding among the apple trees, the orchards in Egypt, and give birth while hiding under the apple trees. Thus, it could rightly be said that God gave birth to his people Israel under the apple tree. But the Saint, in a very mystical manner, in her Meditations, in chapter 7, paragraph 8 says: "From these flowers comes the fruit, the apples of which the bride then says: Surround me with apples. Give me trials Lord; give me persecutions." In the same paragraph, further down she tells us: "By the 'apple tree', I understand the tree of the Cross because it is said in another verse in the Song of Songs (Song of Songs 8.5): under the apple tree I raised you up. And a soul that is surrounded by crosses, trials, and persecutions has a powerful remedy against often continuing in the delight of contemplation." ( M 7.8). This interpretation is very particular, but not a strange one if we were to take into consideration the Hebrew translation of Chapter 2.5 of the Song of Songs. There we read "Refresh me with apples, for I am faint with love."

    The Saint expressed many times, the delight that she experienced in being in the presence of her beloved. This does not come to us as a surprise! The Talmud tells us that "there is no sadness in God's presence", and in the Gospel of John 15.11 Jesus told us: "I have said these things to you so that my joy may be in you, and that your joy may be complete." In writing her Meditations on the Song of Songs (it is worth remembering that she reflected on only very few verses from the Book) apart from telling us twice that she is doing so under obedience from her confessor, in the prologue. She does not hesitate to communicate to us her experience of delight in the following words: "For a number of years now the Lord has given me great delight each time I hear or read some words from Solomon's Song of Songs. The delight is so great that without understanding the vernacular meaning of the Latin, my soul is stirred and recollected more than by devotional books written in the language I understand." (M prologue, paragraph 1). It was the purpose of the Saint to share with her sisters, and with each one of us, a little of the delight she experienced in lingering with the Lord in his words. Speaking about these words, the Apostle Paul in his letter to the Ephesians calls them: "the Gospel of peace" (Eph 6.15).

    It is no surprise that the first petition that the Bride utters in the Song is: "Oh, give me of the kisses of your mouth, For your love is more delightful than wine." (Song of Songs 1.1.). Here, brothers and sisters, lies the secret of the friendship that the Bride desires. In paragraph 12 of chapter 1 of the Meditations, the Saint has these words to say: "And my Lord, if the kiss signifies peace and friendship why should not souls ask you for this kiss? What better thing can we ask for than what I ask you for, my Lord; that You give me this peace 'with the kiss of your mouth'? This, daughters, is a lofty petition, as I shall show you afterward." Further on the Saint tells us in unequivocal terms the kind of friendship that the Bride desires:

    "O Holy Bride, let us turn to what you ask for: that holy peace which makes the soul, while remaining itself completely secure and tranquil, venture out to war against all worldly kinds of peace." (M.3.1).

    The Word of God comes to our rescue in our struggle against false kisses, false peace, peace that comes from financial securities, from worldly pleasures, from the flattering of the ego, from lack of war.

    The soul that is in search of the true friendship that the Bride seeks, in its struggles, begins to become conscious that life comes to us only by dying, dying out of love in serving the Lord. In this process of dying, the Bride begins to notice and to discover the meaning of the symbols and signs; looking around, there is the smell of spring, and this season evokes the first stirring of life, the fragrance of the flowers: Flowers are appearing on the earth ... The fig tree is forming its first figs and the blossoming vines give out their fragrance (Song of Songs 2.12-13). Life comes by love, a love that Scripture says about it: "Greater love no one has, than to lay down his life for his friends". In being united with the one who loved us first, we are empowered with the grace to lay down our life in the service for others: following the footsteps of our Lord, we constantly carry his words in our hearts:

    "You call me Teacher and Lord - and you are right, for that is what I am. So if I, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another's feet. For I have set for you an example, that you also should do as I have done to you." (Jn 13.13-15)

    This short reflection would be incomplete if I do not make the prayer of the Bride my own. I do not hesitate to dare to say that the prayer of every follower of St. Teresa, should make her prayer his or her own. The prayer which I am referring to is found in Chapter 3, paragraph 15 of the Meditations. It reads:

    "My Lord, I do not ask You for anything else in life but that You kiss me with the kiss of Your mouth, and that You do so in such a way that although I may want to withdraw from this friendship and union, my will may always, Lord of my life, be subject to Your will and not depart from it; that there be nothing to impede me from being able to say: My God and my Glory, indeed Your breasts are better and more delightful than wine."


    ....

    Taken from: http://www.ocds.ca/cl384.shtml

    Monday, July 8, 2013

    Archaeometric analysis of the “Jehoash Inscription” tablet


     
    • S. Ilania,
    • A. Rosenfelda,
    • H.R. Feldmanb, Corresponding author contact information
    • J. Kronfeldd
    • a Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel Street, 95501 Jerusalem, Israel
    • b Division of Paleontology (Invertebrates), American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, United States
    • c Department of Geomicrobiology, ICBM, Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet, Oldenburg, Germany
    • d Department of Geophysics and Planetary Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv, 69978 Tel-Aviv, Israel
    Received 7 January 2008
    Revised 9 June 2008
    Accepted 17 June 2008
    Available online 28 June 2008

    Abstract

    A gray, fine-grained arkosic sandstone tablet bearing an inscription in ancient Hebrew from the First Temple Period contains a rich assemblage of particles accumulated in the covering patina that includes calcite, dolomite, quartz and feldspar grains, iron oxides, carbon ash particles, microorganisms, and gold globules (1–4 μm in diameter). There are two types of patina present: thin layers of a black to orange-brown, iron oxide-rich patina, a product of micro-biogenetical activity, as well as a light beige patina mainly composed of carbonates, quartz and feldspar grains. The patina covers the rock surfaces and inscription grooves post-dating the incised inscription as well as a fissure that runs across the stone and several of the engraved letters. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) analyses of the carbon particles in the patina yields a calibrated radiocarbon age of 2340–2150 Cal BP and a conventional radiocarbon age of 2250 ± 40 years BP. The presence of microcolonial fungi and associated pitting indicates slow growth over many years. The occurrence of pure gold globules is evidence of melting (above 1000 °C) indicates a thermal event. This study supports the antiquity of the patina, which in turn, strengthens the contention that the inscription is authentic.

    Keywords

    • Jehoash Inscription;
    • Archaeometric;
    • Patina;
    • Microcolonial fungi;
    • Gold globules

    1. Introduction

    A rectangular dark stone tablet 31 × 25 × 9 cm in size was subjected to archaeometric examination by the authors. The stone tablet is engraved with an inscription in ancient Hebrew (Fig. 1A and B) known as the “Jehoash Inscription” (JI). The inscription commemorates the renovation of the First Temple carried out by King Jehoash, who reigned at the end of the 9th century B.C.E. (ca. 2800 years BP). A similar account of the Temple repairs is found in the Bible (Kings II: 12). This tablet represents the only Judahite royal inscription found to date. According to Cohen (2005), the translation of the 16 lines of the ancient Hebrew is as follows:
    “[I am Yeho'ash, son of A]hazyahu, k[ing over Ju]dah, and I executed the re[pai]rs. When men's hearts became replete with generosity in the (densely populated) land and in the (sparsely populated) steppe, and in all the cities of Judah, to donate money for the sacred contributions abundantly, in order to purchase quarry stone and juniper wood and Edomite copper/copper from (the city of) ‘Adam, (and) in order to perform the work faithfully (=without corruption), - (then) I renovated the breach(es) of the Temple and of the surrounding walls, and the storied structure, and the mesh-work, and the winding stairs, and the recesses, and the doors. May (this inscribed stone) become this day a witness that the work has succeeded (and) may God (thus) ordain His people with a blessing.”
    Full-size image (135 K)
    Full-size image (135 K)
    Fig. 1. A. The ‘Jehoash Inscription’ tablet composed of arkosic sandstone with an ancient First Temple Period Hebrew inscription (scale bar = 5 cm). B. Detail of panel A showing the prominent central fissure transecting the engraved letters. C. The sites of the rock and patina samples from the tablet. Samples Z-1 to Z-7 and Z-9 are from the patina on the inscription face of the tablet; Z-8 (not shown) was collected from the quartz vein on the back side of the tablet; and Z-10 to Z-12 (not shown) were taken from the tablet's side and include only the arkosic sandstone (scale bar = 5 cm).
    The JI tablet is said to have been found near the southeastern corner of the wall of the Temple Mount complex, where it was used as a secondary building stone in a tomb. It was found in the Jerusalem antiquities market and it is now under the custody of the Israel Antiquity Authority (IAA). The authenticity of the Jehoash Inscription has been a fiercely debated topic over the past few years. Epigraphic and philologic analyses of the tablet are inconclusive as to its authenticity. Cohen (2007) contended that if a forgery, it is a brilliant one, near genius. Freedman (2004) advised not to rush to judgment; the Jehoash inscription may be authentic. Sasson (2004) noted that the text of this inscription is not a forgery. If it is a forgery, then a combination of some incredible factors must have operated in producing it. Cross (2003), however, maintained that the inscription is a poor forgery. This dispute should not come as a surprise, since no Hebrew royal inscription from the First Temple Period was ever found which could serve for typological comparison. Ilani et al. (2002) and Rosenfeld et al. (2005) concluded that it may be authentic based on chemical and petrographic analyses. Following their report on the patina to the IAA, Goren et al. (2004) claimed that the inscription on the JI tablet was a forgery. New evidence based on microcolonial fungi (MCF) as producers of a black and orange-brown patina, strengthens the view that the inscription was not recently engraved.

    2. Methods

    The mineralogic composition of the tablet rock was determined by using a petrographic microscope and a Philips X-ray diffractometer. Samples were removed from the rock-tablet by using a diamond-tipped hand drill and from the patina by peeling with a sharp steel blade. A scanning electron microscope (SEM, JEOL-840), equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS, Oxford–Link–Isis) was employed for detailed inspection of the physical properties and structural features of the tablet and its patina, as well as for chemical analysis. A Hitachi S-3200N SEM with low vacuum was used for further analyses of microorganism content within the patina layers. Additional geochemical analyses were carried out using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) in the geochemistry laboratories of the Geological Survey of Israel. A stereoscopic binocular and a light transmitting ore mineral microscope were also used to study the morphology, structural features and thin sections of the rock (see Fig. 1C for sample locations).

    3. Results

    3.1. Rock-tablet

    The general color of the fine-grained JI rock-tablet is medium gray. The gray color was observed in fresh breakage of the rock and in the samples of the drilling material. A fissure, less than 0.5 mm in width, runs across the central part of the tablet parallel to the broken upper edge, crossing ten letters in four lines (Fig. 1B). The fissure begins in the 8th line and descends at an angle of 18° toward the left margin of the 11th line (Fig. 1A and B). The tablet broke into two separate pieces along this fissure.
    Petrographic analysis reveals that the rock, from which the tablet was produced, is an arkosic sandstone (Fig. 2) composed mainly of unsorted sub-angular quartz grains 50–500 μm in size, and angular to sub-rounded unsorted feldspar grains, up to 100 μm in size. Thin section analyses of the rock material indicate that it is composed of: quartz (35%), feldspars (albite and orthoclase; 55%), epidote (3%), chlorite (1%), rutile and sphene (up to 1%), iron oxides and opaques (2–5%). A similar composition was obtained by XRD examination (Fig. 3), however, the results are slightly different (e.g. here we note the presence of calcite and illite) because the XRD samples may have included material from the patina.
    Full-size image (113 K)
    Full-size image (113 K)
    Fig. 2. Thin section of the arkosic sandstone from the tablet. Q, quartz; F, feldspar; E, epidote; O, iron oxide minerals (scale bar = 100 μm).
    Full-size image (40 K)
    Full-size image (40 K)
    Fig. 3. XRD diffractogram of the arkosic sandstone from the tablet (sample Z-10).
    Many of the incised letters on the tablet exhibit defects in shape at the edges. These defects are due to the detachment of quartz and feldspar grains during subsequent weathering of the sandstone. Illuminating the tablet with ultraviolet light (Newman, 1990) did not exhibit the characteristic glow that would indicate fresh engraving scars.
    According to the chemical analysis by ICP-AES, the oxide composition of the rock (samples Z-10 to Z-12; Fig. 1B) from which the tablet was engraved is (% oxides; normalized to 100%): SiO2 – 60; CaO – 13; Fe2O3 – 5.5; Al2O3 – 11.5; Na2O – 3.0; MgO – 2.5; K2O – 1.8; P2O5 – 0.3; MnO – 0.1; TiO2 – 0.7; SO3– <0 .1.="" p="">

    3.2. Patina

    There are two areas on the tablet, one just above and to the left of the crack and the other just below and to the right of the crack, that lack a patina and so were almost certainly cleaned since the tablet's discovery. The patinated areas can be differentiated by their pale orange-brown color. The left lower part retains black to orange-brown as well as light beige patina layers up to 2 mm thick that cover the tablet and the inscription (Fig. 4). The first layer attached to the rock is a thin, up to 1 mm thick, metallic black orange-brown iron oxide layer that covers the surfaces of the tablet and the engraved letters. In places the black and orange-brown layers alternate, occurring one next to the other. As the rock-tablet contains about 5% iron oxides, we suggest that the formation of both black and brown layers may be related to natural geo-biological weathering processes. The overlying and uppermost layer, orange-brown to light beige in color and up to 1 mm thick, is found mostly within the letters but also on the surfaces that were partly cleaned. The black orange-brown patina forms a continuous cover on the surface of the tablet as well as within the grooves of the letters (Fig. 5). Some natural bleaching and incipient light patina formation (light gray zone just below the surface of the tablet) due to exposure to the air near its inscribed surface is also evident. Results of the SEM–EDS analysis of samples from the patina are presented in Table 1. We analyzed nine samples (Fig. 1C; Table 1) using the SEM–EDS backscattered method for detecting heavy elements. We did not detect the presence of any element, such as Cr and V, which would have indicated the use of modern tools in the engraving process.
    Full-size image (79 K)
    Full-size image (79 K)
    Fig. 4. A groove representing part of a letter and the layers of the patina that infills and covers it as well as the rock surface. The lower patina layer consists of black (B) and orange-brown (O) alternating layers occurring one next to the other. Both are composed of iron oxide that can be seen on lateral margins of the groove as well as on the surface of the tablet, above which is a light beige upper patina layer (L). Note the carbon ash particles represented by tiny black specks (A) integrated within the patina (scale bar = 500 μm).
    Full-size image (87 K)
    Full-size image (87 K)
    Fig. 5. The lower part of the broken tablet along the fissure. The arkosic sandstone is medium gray whereas the patina is light gray. A thin black, orange-brown patina layer as well as the light beige overlying layers cover all surfaces of the tablet as well as the grooves of the letters (scale bar = 10 mm).




    Table 1. The occurrence of carbon ash particles and gold globules within the patina of the Jehoash Inscription tablet based on SEM–EDS analysis
    Sample numberCarbon ashGold globulesIron oxidesMiscellaneous
    Z-1Common; 10–30 μmAbundant; 1 μmRare; monazite
    Z-2Abundant; 0.5–1 μmRare; angular; 10 μm
    Z-3Common; 1–4 μm
    Z-4Common; 10–50 μm
    Z-5Common; 10–30 μmAbundant; 1–4 μmCommon; 1–3 μmRare; clay
    Z-6Common, 10 μmCommon; 10 μm
    Z-7Abundant; 60–100 μm
    Z-8Silica; calcsilicate
    Z-9Rare; monazite, clay
    All samples are from the front of the tablet, however, Z-8 is taken from the lower back of the tablet. Abundant = >10 particles/mm2; common = 4–10 particles/mm2; rare = <4 mm="" particles="" sup="">2
    .
    Full-size table
    The patina is composed of Si, O, Ca, Al, Mg, K and Fe. Many rectangular and spherical carbon ash particles 20–100 μm (Fig. 6) were found, as well as a trace amount of pure gold globules 1–4 μm in diameter (Fig. 7). Some gold globules were alloyed with about 2.5% copper and 3.2% iron. Sub-angular iron particles, 3–10 μm in size, were also found in the patina and these particles contain oxygen which clearly implies oxidation. The particles are devoid of any other element usually found in modern tools, and may have belonged to the scriber's tools used in the engraving. Some platy idiomorphic feldspar crystals of about 100 μm and some sub-angular quartz grains were observed in the patina. The light patina is composed mostly of quartz, feldspar, carbonate and iron oxide with a small amount (less than 1%) of clay cations Na, Al, Mg and K. The average contents of the oxides in the patina measured and calculated by SEM–EDS are (% oxides; normalized to 100%): SiO2 – 53; CaO – 16; Fe2O3 – 18; Al2O3 – 5.5; Na2O – 2.5; MgO – 2; K2O – 1. Compared to the rock-tablet the patina is enriched with Fe2O3 by about 12% and CaO by 3%.

    Full-size image (40 K)
    Full-size image (40 K)
    Fig. 6. SEM photo of a carbon ash particle. The calibrated radiocarbon age of numerous particles ranges from 2340 to 2150 BP. Note a centrally located rectangular fragment. The composition of these particles was confirmed by EDS analysis.
    Full-size image (25 K)
    Full-size image (25 K)
    Fig. 7. SEM photo of pure gold globule found within the patina. These globules occur at about 10 spheres per mm2 .
    The iron concentration in the patina is about three times more than in the rock itself. The mineralogic composition of the patina, investigated by XRD analysis (Fig. 8), includes quartz, calcite, dolomite and feldspar in a texture (confirmed by the SEM–EDS) of interlocking grains within a matrix of calcite.
    The SEM–EDS analysis revealed that the patina contains carbon ash particles of 10–100 μm in size. Fig. 6 is an example of such particles whose chemical composition is pure carbon. It should be noted that, based on SEM–EDS analysis, the patina contains only 5.5% Al2O3, 1% K2O and rare monazite. Plagioclase crystals are common, suggesting that the clay content of the patina is very low.

    3.3. Age determination of the patina

    The carbon ash particles are admixed within the patina, firmly and intimately associated with the other particles (Fig. 4 and Fig. 6). Samples of the patina were taken by the Israel Museum in Jerusalem and sent for radiocarbon dating to the Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in Miami, Florida, USA (Table 2). According to their report from June 5, 2002, the patina samples were combined into a single sample. The surface area was increased as much as possible and the sediment was dispersed and pretreated by hydrochloric acid (HCl) that was applied repeatedly to ensure the absence of carbonates and to separate out the carbon ash particles. According to the laboratory report, the sample provided sufficient carbon for an accurate measurement and the AMS analysis proceeded normally. The conventional radiocarbon age is 2250 ± 40 years BP whereas the calibrated radiocarbon age was calculated at 2340–2150 Cal BP.
    Table 2. Radiocarbon age determination of the patina of the Jehoash Inscription tablet
    Sample dataMeasured radiocarbon age13C/12C ratioConventional radiocarbon age
    Report date: 6/5/02
    Material received: 5/20/02
    Beta – 1674452190+/−40 BP−21.1‰2250+/−40 BP
    Sample: BB
    Analysis: AMS
    Material/pretreatmentPatina/acid and solvent washes
    2 Sigma calibrationCal BC 390–200 (Cal BP 2340–2150
    Full-size table

    3.4. Gold globules

    Gold globules that we detected in the patina using backscattered SEM–EDS, are minute, usually 1–2 μm in diameter (Fig. 7) and were found in four of the nine samples taken from the patina. The gold is in the form of individual globules of well-sorted size. There are approximately 10 globules per mm2 in each of the four patina samples (Table 1). The total weight of the globules in the patina is calculated to be to less than 0.001 g for the entire tablet.

    3.5. Microcolonial fungi

    Microcolonial fungi (MCF), known to concentrate and deposit manganese and iron, play a key role in the alteration and biological weathering of rocks and minerals (Staley et al., 1982 and Gurbushina, 2003). They are microorganisms of high survivability, inhabiting rocks in extreme conditions, and are also known to survive in subsurface and subaerial environments. Long-living black yeast-like fungi form pitted embedded circular structures of 5–500 μm in size (Fig. 9 and Fig. 10) (Krumbein, 2003, Krumbein and Jens, 1981 and Sterflinger and Krumbein, 1997). The MCF structures (Fig. 9) were found inside the last letter of the 14th row of the tablet. There is morphological continuity between the patina of the rock surface itself and the grooves of the letters (Fig. 5). The black orange-brown thin layers (films) of iron-oxide patina are the product of geomicrobiogenic activity that covers all surfaces of the tablet.
    Full-size image (77 K)
    Full-size image (77 K)
    Fig. 9. Biogenic pitting and black to orange-brown patina formation within the upper stroke letter ‘HEH’ (last letter in the 14th row, inverted) caused by black yeast-like fungi on arkosic sandstone of the JI tablet. Fused pits are visible in the middle of the photograph (groove width = 1 mm).
    Full-size image (57 K)
    Full-size image (57 K)
    Fig. 10. SEM photo showing the circular pits (P) and fungal hyphae (H) of the patina. The sample was taken from the border between letter incision and the natural rock, near the crack zone (scale bar = 30 μm).
    A scanning electron micrograph (Fig. 10) of the border section between the patina and crack in the tablet shows circular pits (P) from microbial attack and fungal hyphae (H) indicating fungal growth and patination. A hypha is one of the individual tubular filaments or threads that make up the mycelium of a fungus. The fungi, belonging to a group of dematiaceous black yeasts, were identified as Coniosporium sp. and related species. Clear evidence of biopitting can be found in recent outcrops in the nearby deserts of Judea, the Negev and Sinai. The structures in the Jehoash Tablet near the lettering zone are significant in that they are almost identical, although not as clear, as those cited by Krumbein, 2003 and Krumbein and Jens, 1981 and Sterflinger and Krumbein (1997), and can be explained by prolonged exposure to atmospheric conditions.

    4. Discussion

    Layered platy arkosic sandstones occur in Cambrian formations exposed in southern Israel and in southwest Jordan (Bender, 1968) and were readily available to stone workers in Judea in ancient times. Such rocks are found south of the Dead Sea, in the Timna area and in southern Sinai, mainly in the Shechoret Formation (Weissbrod, 1987). In the Temple of Serabit el-Khadem in southern Sinai, many of stelae with hieroglyphic inscriptions from the Middle and New Kingdoms are carved from arkosic sandstone of the upper part of the Shechoret Formation. Goren et al. (2004) determined that the tablet was engraved in graywacke. However, there is no graywacke in Israel or Sinai.
    The patina coating the tablet carrying the inscription is composed of elements derived from the tablet itself (quartz and feldspar grains) as well as accretion from the environment (calcite and dolomite deposits, carbon ash particles, and gold globules). The patina from the back of the tablet is composed mostly of quartz and some carbonate. This siliceous-carbonate material could be an original vein filling along a bedding plane or a joint in the original rock, similar to those found in the Cambrian clastic rocks exposed in southern Israel and Sinai, and may represent a natural rock fissure along which the rock was detached for further processing as is the case in many quarries. No indications of adhesive materials or other artificial substances that could indicate addition, pasting, or dispersion of artificial patina on the inscribed face of the tablet have been observed.
    The occurrence of pure gold globules (1–4 μm) is evidence of the melting (above 1000 °C) of gold artifacts or gold-gilded items. Gold powder comprised of globules 1–4 μm in diameter does not exist in the modern gold market, where gold globules have a wide range of sizes, the smallest diameter being 500 μm. On the other hand, gold powder, or gold dust, with an average size between 70 and 80 μm has an angular, flaky shape. Native gold dust from Sardis, Turkey contains irregular flattened flakes with rounded edges, 100–500 μm in size, but not globules (Geckinli et al., 2000). According to Meeks (2000), pure gold globules of 3–300 μm in diameter were found in the production and refining site of Sardis resulting from melting processes. One would thus expect many gold globules of various sizes to occur in clustered aggregates in the patina if it was of recent origin. This is clearly not the case. The small amounts detected would be difficult to produce within any artificial patina. Both the occurrence of carbon ash particles and gold globules in the patina are suggestive of a thermal event. It is proposed that the ‘apparent’ radiocarbon age of 2250 years BP is an average of a mixture of older and younger carbon fragments that have been incorporated into the patina over time, thus implying that there was more than one thermal event.
    The microbiogenic patina is dense, coating all surfaces as well as the engraved letters, and indicates growth over extended periods of time. A Nabataean flint artifact from Avdat, southern Israel, 2000 years old (Krumbein, 1969) shows the following identical features to those found in the JI tablet: microcolonial fungi, a black orange-brown coloration and pitted circular structures.
    Recently, the oxygen isotopic composition of the carbonate of the patina was analyzed and the results used to suggest that the JI tablet was not authentic (Goren et al., 2004). This conclusion was based on the assumption that the presence of oxygen in the carbonate could be explained by precipitation from meteoric groundwater in the Jerusalem area. The data of Goren et al.'s (2004) four analyses of patina taken from the surface of the tablet could, however, be interpreted differently. Two of their four results exhibit δ18O values (−1.7‰ and −0.9‰, PDB) that are anomalously enriched compared to local cave precipitates. However, these values are exactly what are to be expected from marine carbonate material. Exposures of Cretaceous marine carbonates are abundant in Jerusalem and provide a majority of its building stone. It is probably marine carbonates that were found within the JI tablet patina, with the particles derived from the weathering of these exposed rocks and deposited by wind. Indeed, well-preserved marine carbonate microfossils, such as Cretaceous to Eocene foraminifera, occur in abundance in everyday dust in Jerusalem ( Ehrenberg, 1860, Ganor, 1975 and Ganor et al., 2007) as well as in the local soils. Goren et al.'s (2004) other two reported δ18O values (−8.4‰ and −7.3‰) are depleted relative to modern carbonate formation data (−4‰ to −6‰) (Bar-Matthews and Ayalon, 1997). However, there are many ways that isotopically depleted carbonate can be generated and incorporated in a genuine patina, such as the process of decarbonation, that would indicate thermal events. Thermally induced decarbonation reactions of calcite and dolomite with the quartz or feldspar in arkosic sandstone or in the soil would result in residual carbonate with lowered δ18O values (Faure, 1986). Isotopic depletion, due to thermal metamorphism, occurs in lime-rich soils when they are intruded by igneous bodies (Katz et al., 1998). In the vicinity of Jerusalem, widespread lowering of δ18O values in normal marine carbonates of the Hatrurim Formation took place by decarbonation during (non-igneous related) thermal metamorphism (Kolodny and Gross, 1974). Calcite from the Negev oil shales exhibits δ18O values of −0.5‰ to −2‰ PDB; however, after heating these oil shales to 700–800 °C, depletion of δ18O values (−5.2‰ to −10.2‰ PDB) is obtained in the residual carbonate (Yoffe et al., 2002). Moreover, light oxygen isotope values are known to be deposited in the Judean mountains during years of high precipitation, that is, over 1000 mm of rainfall per year (e.g. see Fig. 6, Bar-Matthews and Ayalon, 1997). According to Kolodny et al. (2005), the dominance of the source effect in determining the oxygen isotopic composition of speleothems in the Levant reduces the power of δ18O as an independent climatic indicator. Because of the lack of knowledge of the mineralogical association of the oxygen isotopes, the burial and custodial history of the JI tablet, the oxygen data of Goren et al. (2004) is completely moot. No conclusions can be drawn from the oxygen isotope data. Further exposure, even for short periods of time, to surface conditions with varying amounts of rainfall, high temperature regimes and consecutive evaporation events may significantly alter oxygen isotope ratios. In addition, we would like to note that the modern cleaning processes of the JI tablet depending on the cleaner used could easily change the expected oxygen fractionation values in the patina.

    5. Conclusions

    Our analyses strongly support the authenticity of the Jehoash tablet and its inscription. All evidences indicate that the production of the tablet and the carving of its inscription occurred at essentially the same time. The critical evidence is as follows: (1) the central fissure and the upper breakage cut across several lines and letters and the patina extends down along the margins of the broken faces, (2) quartz and feldspar grains found within the patina are weathered from within the rock, (3) the patina is dense, microbiogenic and is indicative of growth over extended periods of time, (4) the two patina layers attached to the rock (black orange-brown and an upper lighter-colored one) that cover the tablet and inscription includes ash particles and minute, well-sorted globules of pure gold, a product of melting, (5) the age of the carbon ash interlocked within the patina is approximately 2250 years BP according to radiocarbon dating and, (6) no modern elements related to the use of modern tools were found.

    6. Note added in proof

    Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig. 6, Fig. 7, Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 modified from Dahari, U., 2004. The James Ossuary: Ancient Relic or Modern Forgery? Cornerstone University Press, Symposium, 12 May 2004.

    Acknowledgments

    We thank Dr. A. Honigstein, Ministry of National Infrastructures, Oil and Gas Section, Jerusalem, Israel, Dr. K. Kojonen, Geological Survey of Finland, and, Dr. A. Shimron, Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem, for their insightful reviews of an earlier version of the manuscript and suggestions for improvement. Constructive comments by two anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful to M. Dvorachek, Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem, for help with the SEM–EDS work and Susan Feldman, Scarsdale, New York, for technical assistance. We thank Dr. Y. Natan, Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem, for identifying the carbon ash particles in the patina. WEK acknowledges the help of the ICBM electron microscopy unit and the Soil Science Department of Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg for microscopy and X-ray diffractometry as well as the Institute of Crystallography of the Würzburg University.

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